The Most Widely Applied Theories in the Study of Family Life Is

Learning Outcomes:

At the terminate of this chapter yous will be able to exercise the following.

Explain the major assumptions of each of the theoretical perspectives.

Compare and contrast the three major theoretical perspectives.

Utilize theory to issues of the family.

M AKING South ENSE OF A BSTRACT T HEORIES

Sociological theories are the core and underlying forcefulness of the subject field. They guide researchers in their studies; they also guide practitioners in their intervention strategies. And they volition provide you with a basic understanding of how to see the larger social pic in your own personal life. A theory is a gear up of interrelated concepts used to depict, explain, and predict how society and its parts are related to each other. Permit'due south use binoculars as a metaphor to illustrate the usefulness of a theory. Binoculars serve to magnify, enlarge, clarify, and expand our view of the affair we are looking at. Unlike binoculars, yous can't see or bear upon a theory, but information technology is a framework to help you lot "come across" the world sociologically. Some things y'all want to wait at demand xx×fourscore strength binoculars while you might see other things better with viii×40 or x×30 lenses. It'southward the same with society. Some things need the lens of Conflict Theory, while others need a Structural Functional or Symbolic Interactionist lens. Some social phenomena can be viewed using each of the three frameworks, although each will give y'all a slightly different view of the topic under investigation.

Theories are sets of interrelated concepts and ideas that have been scientifically tested and combined to magnify, overstate, clarify, and aggrandize our understanding of people, their behaviors, and their societies. Without theories, science would be a futile do in statistics. In the diagram below yous can encounter the process by which a theory leads sociologists to perform a certain type of written report with certain types of questions that can examination the assumptions of the theory. One time the report is administered, the findings and generalizations tin exist considered to encounter if they back up the theory. If they do, similar studies volition exist performed to repeat and fine-tune the procedure. If the findings and generalizations do non support the theory, the sociologist rethinks and revisits the assumptions s/he fabricated.

Here'southward a real-life scientific example: In the 1960s ii researchers named Cumming and Henry studied the processes of aging. They devised a theory on aging that had assumptions built into it. These were, but put, that all elderly people realize the inevitability of death and begin to systematically disengage from their previous youthful roles while at the same time club prepares to undo from them.¹ Cumming and Henry tested their theory on a big number of elderly persons. Findings and generalization consistently yielded a "no" in terms of support for this theory. For all intents and purposes this theory was abandoned and is merely used in references such as these. Theories have to be supported by research and they too provide a framework for how specific research should be conducted.

Theories can be used to study society–millions of people in a state, country, or even at the globe level. When theories are used at this level they are referred to as macro theories , theories which best fit the study of massive numbers of people (typically Conflict and Functional theories). When theories are used to study small-scale groups or individuals, say a couple, family, or team, they are referred to as being micro theories , theories which best fit the written report of small groups and their members (typically Symbolic Interactionism). In many cases, whatsoever of the three chief theories tin be applied at either the macro or micro levels.

Let's consider the iii major theoretical perspectives ane at a time.

C ONFLICT T HEORY

The Conflict Theory is a macro theory designed to study the larger social, global, and societal level of sociological phenomena. This theory was founded by Karl Marx. Marx was a witness to oppression perpetrated by society's aristocracy members against the masses of poor. He had very little patience for the capitalistic ideals that undergirded these powerful acts of inhumane exploitation of the average person. Later Max Weber further adult this sociological theory and refined it to a more moderate position. Weber studied capitalism further only argued against Marx's outright rejection of it.

Disharmonize theory is especially useful in understanding: war, wealth and poverty, the "haves" and the "accept-nots," revolutions, political strife, exploitation, divorce, ghettos, discrimination and prejudice, domestic violence, rape, child corruption, slavery, and more than disharmonize-related social phenomena. Conflict Theory claims that society is in a state of perpetual conflict and contest for express resources. Marx and Weber, were they alive today, would likely use Conflict Theory to study the unprecedented bail outs by the U.S. government which have proven to exist a rich-to-rich wealth transfer or to assistance guide the explanation of individual health care companies benefiting from affliction and poverty.

Conflict Theory assumes that those who "have" perpetually endeavor to increase their wealth at the expense and suffering of those who "take-not." It is a ability struggle which is most often won by the wealthy elite and lost past the common person of mutual means. Those who "have" are those who possess power. Power is the ability to get what one wants even in the presence of opposition. When power is institutionalized, we telephone call it authority. Authority is institutionalized, legitimate power. By institutionalized we hateful making something (for example a concept, a social part, item values and norms, or modes of beliefs) become embedded inside an organization, social system, or society every bit an established custom or norm within that organization. ⁱⁱ

By far the "haves," in Marx's terms, the suburbia or wealthy elite are the royal, political, and corporate leaders, have the most power. The suburbia are the Goliaths in guild who often bully their wishes into outcomes. The "have-nots" or Marx'southward proletariat are the mutual working class, lower grade, and poor members of society. According to Marx (see diagram below) the Bourgeoisie and Proletariat cannot both have information technology their way and in lodge to start the wealth and power of the Bourgeoisie the proletariat ofttimes ascension upwardly and revolt confronting their oppressors (The French, Bolshevik, Us, Mexican, and other revolutions are examples).

Figure one. Photo Montage of Haves and Have Nots in a U.S. Neighborhood. ⁱⁱⁱ

Marx and Weber realized that societies take different social classes and a similar blueprint of relatively few rich persons in comparison to the majority who are poor. The rich call the shots. Await below at the photographic montage in Figure 1 of homes in one U.S. neighborhood which were run downwards, poor, trashy, and worth very little. They were on the west side of a gully and frustrated many who lived on the east side who were forced to drive through these slums to reach their own mansions.

The Disharmonize Theory has been repeatedly tested against scientifically derived data and it repeatedly proves to have a wide application among many different levels of sociological report. That is not to say that all sociological phenomena are conflict-based. Simply, about Conflict theorists would argue that mostly Conflict assumptions do apply.

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM THEORY

The Functionalist Theory claims that order is in a state of residual and kept that mode through the role of society's component parts. Club can be studied the aforementioned way the human being body can be studied: by analyzing what specific systems are working or non working, diagnosing problems, and devising solutions to restore rest. Socialization, religious involvement, friendship, health care, economical recovery, peace, justice and injustice, population growth or decline, customs, romantic relationships, marriage and divorce, and normal and abnormal family experiences are just a few of the evidences of functional processes in our society.

Functionalists would concur with Conflict Theorists that things break down in society and that unfair treatment of others is common. These interruption downs are called dysfunctions, which are breakdowns or disruptions in society and its parts that threaten social stability.

Enron's plummet, the ruination of 14,000 employees' retirement funds, the loss of millions in shareholder investments, and the serious doubt it left in the mind of U.S. investors nigh the stock market'southward brownie and reliability which lasted for nearly a decade are examples of dysfunctions in the economic sector of the economy. Functionalists also look at ii types of functions, manifest and latent functions. Manifest functions are the apparent and intended functions of institutions in society while latent functions are the less apparent, unintended, and often unrecognized functions in social institutions and processes.

Back to Enron, the regime'southward manifest function includes regulation of investment rules and laws in the stock market to ensure brownie and reliability. After the Enron collapse, every company offering stocks for trade underwent a authorities supervised audit of its accounting processes in social club to restore the public trust. For the nigh part balance was restored in the stock market place (to a sure caste at to the lowest degree). There are withal many imbalances in the investment, mortgage, and banking sectors which have to exist readjusted; just, that'south the signal-society readjusts and somewhen recovers.

Does the regime as well provide latent or accidental functions to social club? Yeah. Take for case U.Due south. military bases. Of all the currently open U.Due south. armed services bases, all are economic boons for the local communities surrounding them. All provide jobs, taxes, tourism, retail, and regime contract monies that would otherwise become somewhere else. When the discussion about closing military bases comes up in Washington DC, Senators and members of Congress go to work trying to keep their customs's bases open.

Equally you lot tin already tell, Functionalism is more positive and optimistic than Conflict Theory. Functionalists realize that just like the torso, societies get "sick" or dysfunction. By studying society's parts and processes, Functionalists can better empathise how society remains stable or suit to destabilizing forces when unwanted change is threatened. According to this theory most societies find that healthy residuum and maintain it; if they don't so they collapse equally many accept in the history of the earth. Equilibrium is the state of balance maintained by social processes that aid society conform and compensate for forces that might tilt it onto a path of destruction. Thinking back to the Conflict example of the gully separating extremely wealthy and poor neighborhoods, expect at the Habitat for Humanity film in Figure 2. Functional Theorists would say that component parts of gild reply to dysfunctions in ways that help to resolve problems. In this business firm the foundation was dug, poured, and dried within a week. From the foundation to this point was three working days. This house is now finished and lived in, thanks mostly to the Habitat non-profit procedure and the work of many volunteers. Lots of homeless people are a dysfunction for order; think nearly what would happen if one-half of lodge was homeless for example. So another part of society, the normative organization of Habitat for Humanity, steps in and makes adjustments; they buy lots, get donations and volunteers and build homes helping to bring society back into equilibrium.

S YMBOLIC I NTERACTIONISM T HEORY

Symbolic Interactionism claims that order is composed of ever-present interactions amid individuals who share symbols and their meanings. This is a very useful theory for understanding other people, improving communication, and in understanding cantankerous-cultural relations. Values, communication, witch-hunting, crisis management, fear from crime, fads, love, evil and sin, what's hot and what'south not, alien abduction beliefs, "who I am," litigation, mate pick, arbitration, dating joys and woes, and both personal and national meanings and definitions can all be better understood using Symbolic Interactionism.

In one case you realize that individuals are, by their social natures, very symbolic with one some other, then you begin to empathize how to persuade your friends and family unit, how to

empathize others' points of view, and how to resolve misunderstandings. This theory is interested in meanings. Call back about these iii words, LOVE, LUST, and LARD. Each letter is a symbol. When combined in a specific order, each word tin can be defined. Considering we memorize words and their meanings nosotros know that in that location is a striking difference between Dear and LUST. Nosotros also know that LARD has zip to practice with either of the other two terms. Contrast these word pairs hate versus hope, assist versus hurt, advise versus abuse, and connect versus corrupt. These words, similar many others carry immense meaning and when juxtaposed sound like the beginning of philosophical ideas.

Figure 2. Photo of a Habitat for Humanity Dwelling. ⁴

Symbolic Interactionism makes it possible for you to be a college student. Information technology makes it so yous empathise your professors' expectations and know how to footstep up to them. Our daily interactions are filled with symbols and an ongoing process of interactions with other people based on the meanings of these symbols. Take you lot ever had anyone yous've greeted really answer your question of "How are yous?" Most of the states never take. Information technology's a greeting, not a question in the U.S. culture and a Symbolic Interactionist would be interested in how it changed from a question to a greeting.

Symbolic Interactionism helps you to know what the expectations of your roles are and if you perceive yourself every bit doing a skillful job or not in coming together those expectations. TheThomas Theorem is frequently called the "definition of the situation." It says that if people perceive or ascertain something equally being existent, then it becomes real in its consequences. An example of this is a woman who was diagnosed every bit HIV positive. She fabricated her funeral plans, made sure her children would exist cared for then prepared to die. Two-years later she was retested. It turned out her first test results were a false positive, yet she acted equally though she had AIDS and was certainly going to dice before long from it. She inverse how she saw her remaining days. In a hypothetical instance, a famous athlete (yous choice the sport) defines himself as invincible and besides famous to exist held legally accountable for his criminal behavior. He is afterward found guilty for a criminal offence. A hypothetical pol (you pick the party and level of governance) believes that his/her constituents volition tolerate anything and so he/she engages in morally undesirable beliefs. The point is that when we define our situation as being real, we act as though it is real (regardless of the objective facts in the thing).

One of the major realizations that comes with Symbolic Interactionism is that you begin to understand the other people in your life and come to know that they are neither right nor incorrect, but of a different indicate of view. They define social symbols with varying meanings. To understand the other person's symbols and meanings is to arroyo a common ground. Heed to this statement by Rosa Parks (1913-2005), "All I was doing was trying to go home from work." In 1955 when she refused to give up her seat on the double-decker to a White person, information technology proved to exist a spark for the Civil Rights Movement that involved the leadership of Martin Luther King Jr. and many other notable leaders. It was Rosa Parks' simple and honest argument that made her deed of disobedience then meaningful. The king of beasts's share of the nation was collectively tired and sick of the mistreatment of Blacks. Many Whites joined the protests while others quietly sympathized. After all that was written in the history books well-nigh it, a simple nevertheless symbolic gesture by Rosa Parks started the healing process for the Usa. Table 1 provides a quick reference for comparing the 3 major sociological perspectives.

T HEORIES D EVELOPED FOR U NDERSTANDING THE F AMILY

Over the years researchers have found the necessity to develop theories of behavior that are specific to family unit settings. These theories have been developed by people with a variety of areas of emphasis, from family therapists to gerontologists to child development specialists. In this affiliate we volition briefly discuss six such theories: Family unit Systems, Family Developmental, Life Course, Social Exchange, Ecological, and Feminist.

F AMILY Southward YSTEMS T HEORY

When agreement the family, the Family unit Systems Theory has proven to be very powerful. Family unit Systems Theory claims that the family is understood best past conceptualizing information technology every bit a complex, dynamic, and changing collection of parts, subsystems and family members. Much like a mechanic would interface with the computer system of a broken down motorcar to diagnose which systems are broken (transmission, electrical, fuel, etc.) to repair it, a therapist or researcher would collaborate with family members to diagnose how and where the systems of the family unit are in demand of repair or intervention. Family unit Systems Theory comes nether the Functional Theory umbrella and shares the functional approach of because the dysfunctions and functions of complex groups and organizations. To fully understand what is meant by systems and subsystems look at Figure 3 which depicts Juan and Maria's extended family system.

Table 1. Comparison the 3 Major Sociological Theories.5
	Disharmonize	Structural Functionalism	Symbolic Interactionism
	Macro	Macro	Micro
	Inequality lies at the core	Uses biological model	Society is an ongoing
	of club which leads to	(society is similar a living	process of many social
	disharmonize	organism)	interactions
	Resource are limited	Society has interrelated	Interactions based on
	Power is not evenly	parts	symbolic context in which
	distributed	What are functions or	they occur
	Competition is inevitable	dysfunctions of parts	Subjective perceptions are
	(winners & losers)	Society finds residuum and is	disquisitional to how symbols are
	Negotiations based on	stable	interpreted
	influence, threats,	Equilibrium	Communications
	promises, and consensus	Society adjusts to maintain	Meanings
	Threats and coercion	remainder	Roles
	Any resource can be used	How are parts integrated	Cocky
	as tool of power or	Manifest functions	Reality shaping in cocky and
	exploitation	Latent functions and	with others
	War is natural	dysfunctions	Social construction of reality
	Haves and accept nots		Thomas Theorem
	Privileges are protected		Definition of situation
	by haves
	Guild is challenged past
	have nots

Figure 3. Juan and Maria's Extended Family System.

Juan and Maria are a middle-aged couple. Juan is a professor who lives with his parents, his married woman's widowed mother, his 2 children Anna and José, Anna's married man Alma and the 3-month old triplets Anna just delivered. Notice that Maria's father has passed abroad, and so he has an X over his place in this diagram. Because Juan is financially established, he can support the large extended family. This represents a 4-generation complex family system. In that location are three couples living within this home, Juan and Maria, Granddaddy and Grandma, and Alma and Anna. Just there are various levels of strain felt past each couple.

Today multi-generational family unit systems are becoming more common, merely are typically 3 generations where the married developed child and his or her spouse and children movement back home. Juan and Maria raised their two children Anna and José with tremendous support from grandparents. Maria's female parent was a college graduate and has been a big assistance to José who is a sophomore in higher and a basketball team member. Juan'southward mother and begetter are the oldest family members and are becoming more dependent. Juan's mother requires some daily care from Maria. In fact, Maria has the nearly private strain of whatsoever family member in this family unit organisation. Juan and Maria accept each felt a strain on their marriage because of the strains that come up from each subsystem and family member who depends upon them. They both have in-laws in the house, they both contribute to the intendance needs of the elderly family members, and they both try to support their son's basketball game games and tournaments. But perchance most stressful is that there are three brand new babies in the firm (come across Figure 4).

Those new babies accept strained the entire family organisation, but farthermost strain lands on Maria considering Alma is a second year medical student and spends long hours in class and training. Anna is extremely overwhelmed past bottle-feedings, diapers, and other hands-on baby care demands. So, Maria is supporting both her daughter and three grandsons, but information technology's overwhelming.

Maria is the Matriarch of this family system. She simultaneously belongs to the following subsystems, Daughter-Female parent; Daughter-in-police-Father & Mother-in-police force; Spousal; Mother-Son; Mother-Daughter; Mother-in-law-Son-in-constabulary; and Grandmother-grandchildren. A large number of subsystems in one's life does not automatically imply strain or stress. By looking at the family unit equally a complex arrangement with inter-locking and interdependent subsystems, solutions tin exist found among the members of the organization and subsystems.

This brings up the issue of boundaries. Boundaries are distinct emotional, psychological, or physical separateness between individuals, roles, and subsystems in the family unit. Boundaries are crucial to good for you family unit operation.

F AMILY D EVELOPMENTAL T HEORY

Family Developmental Theory dates back to the 1930s and has been influenced by sociologists, demographers, and family and consumer scientists, as well equally others. It is used to explain patterns of change, the dynamic nature of families, and how alter occurs inside the family life cycle. Family unit Developmental Theory was originally focused on stages of the family life wheel. According to Evelyn Duvall the stages are equally follows. Phase 1: Married Couples without Children. Stage 2: Childbearing Families which starts at the nascence of the first child and continues until the oldest kid is two½ years old. Stage 3: Families with Pre-School Children where the oldest kid is 2½ -6 years old. Phase 4: Families with Schoolchildren where the oldest child is 6-13 years former. Stage 5: Families with Teenagers where the oldest child is thirteen-20 years old. Stage 6: Families as Launching Centers. This starts when the first child leaves domicile and continues until the final child leaves home. Phase 7: Middle-Historic period Parents which continues until retirement. Stage 8: Aging Families which continues until the death of ane spouse.vi

Figure iv. Extended Family System Strain on Maria.

Theorists found over fourth dimension that many families did non fit this model. For instance many children who had launched had returned to the family unit home, often with children of their own. Newer models of this theory focused more on the roles and relationships within the family. The theory yet focuses on developmental tasks which are the growth responsibilities that arise at certain stages in the life of the family. To exist successful, family members demand to conform to changing needs and demands and to attend to tasks that are necessary to ensure family unit survival.

The major assumptions of this theory include the importance of individual development but stress that the evolution of the grouping of interacting individuals is most of import. Developmental processes are inevitable and of import in understanding families. Growth from one stage to another is going to happen. Families and individuals change over a catamenia of time–they progress through a series of similar developmental stages and face similar transition points and developmental tasks.

To understand the family unit nosotros must consider the challenges they face up in each stage, how well they resolve them, and how well they transition to the adjacent stage. The success or difficulty of achieving the developmental tasks in each phase leads to readiness for the next phase. The major criticism of this theory is its lack of ability to account for dissimilar family forms, and gender, ethnic, and cultural differences. It isn't culturally relevant or sensitive to other life way choices (e.g., childless families).7

T HE L IFE C OURSE P ERSPECTIVE

The life form perspective is prominent inside the fields of family folklore and crumbling. It is a lens with which to view the age-related transitions that are socially created and are recognized and shared past members of a gild. It aids in our understanding of change among individuals and populations over time by looking at the interrelation between individual biography and historical social structures.viii

The life course perspective is a theoretical framework that focuses on the timing of events that occur in an private's lifetime. A life class view of marriage is of an ongoing career that occurs inside the context of other life course events.⁹ The essential elements of the life course perspective include five themes: 1.) multiple time clocks, 2.) social context of development, 3.) dynamic view of procedure and change, 4.) heterogeneity in structures and processes, and 5.) a multidisciplinary view.

The first element is a focus on multiple time clocks or events that impact the individual. These multiple fourth dimension clocks include ontogenetic, or individual, time which is comprised of personal events, generational time which consists of family transitions or events, and historical fourth dimension which refers to social events. It is crucial to recognize the importance of the interactions of these time frames, since for instance historical events will impact individual'southward life trajectories, such every bit the events of war or economic depression. Changes over historical time, such as the appearance of no-fault divorce interact with generational time to increase the number of children whose parents divorce, which in plough interacts with private fourth dimension and may bring well-nigh a personal choice to divorce.

Second, the social context of development is also a focus of this perspective. I's location inside the broader social structure, the social creation of meanings, cultural context and change, and the interplay of macro- and micro-levels of development play an of import function in the life grade perspective.

Third, the life form perspective has a dynamic view of process and change. It focuses on the dialectic of continuity and change in man development. Age, period, and cohort furnishings are linked by their interaction with one another link microlevel and macrolevel phenomena. This perspective allows the researcher to disentangle the effects of age, period, and accomplice to obtain a more authentic film of family dynamics. Age effects are an artifact of maturation of individuals while period effects influence the life courses of individuals across nativity cohorts. Accomplice furnishings cause a differentiation in life patterns of consecutive birth cohorts.^ten

The fourth theme of the life course perspective looks at heterogeneity in structures and processes. It acknowledges diversity beyond the range of patterns–increasing multifariousness over time with age at the accomplice and individual level, and variety over time with social change.

The 5th theme emphasizes the utility of multidisciplinary perspectives on development. Development is biological, psychological, and social and all of these perspectives must be considered when studying human development.¹¹

The life course perspective is not merely a variation of developmental theories since the latter emphasizes a normative sequence of stages in one'southward life. The life course perspective acknowledges the variance in the possible sequence of events, likewise equally, the omission of some events, such equally not having children. This perspective also acknowledges the event of social and historical events on the individual's life course (e.g., war). Life course scholars also are aware of the intra-cohort differences that are influenced by these social and historical events. The life class perspective views spousal relationship as the uniting of two dissever life histories which have been influenced by social events of the past and will be influenced by social events of the future.¹²

S OCIAL Eastward XCHANGE T HEORY

Social exchange theorists focusing on marital quality and stability have posited that individuals counterbalance the costs and benefits of mate selection and of remaining in a marriage. We look to this theory to explicate why an individual might remain in a dissatisfied marriage. Barriers to change and attractiveness of alternatives are the main elements of social exchange theory when used to guide the investigation of divorce.^thirteen

There are several terms which are central to social substitution theory that must be defined prior to a discussion of the theory. Outcomes are those rewards or costs which are received or incurred past actors from each other in an substitution human relationship. Outcomes can be positive (rewards) or negative (costs) and social exchange theory makes no assumption well-nigh whether an individual will view a particular outcome as positive or negative (e.g., some individuals view divorce equally positive while others view information technology equally a negative outcome). The theory only assumes that behavior is consistent with what individuals value in their lives. Rewards may exist physical, social, or psychological. Costs tin can be viewed as negative or as forgone rewards. Resources are possessions or behavioral capabilities (human capital letter) which have value to others and to oneself (e.g., a husband's job and income take value to his wife). When one resources outweighs another resource then information technology may become a barrier (e.g., the wife's income may be a resource that enables her to leave the marriage, but her husband's income may be and so cracking that it may exist a barrier to leaving since she won't be able to relish the life to which she has go accustomed without his income).^fourteen Barriers are the costs of making a choice.^fifteen Several studies find when barriers are many and alternatives are few individuals may remain in dissatisfied marriages.¹⁶

Alternatives are the variety of possible substitution relations available to individuals. An private'south alternatives are those opportunities which produce outcomes which have value to the individual. These outcomes may be exchange relationships with other individuals. In the study of divorce, alternatives are to remain married or to divorce. There are costs and rewards associated with alternatives (e.g., the psychological cost of staying in a poor quality marriage, the cost of paying bills on one income associated with divorce) and social exchange theory implies that individuals attempt to counterbalance rewards and costs when making decisions near alternatives.¹⁷

Individuals are dependent on each other in an exchange relationship and the outcomes which are valued past the individuals are contingent on the exchanges made with the other. Exchanges can exist one-sided (asymmetrical) or reciprocal.¹⁸ An private may give to another without receiving annihilation in render or may receive without giving. Individuals tend to influence each other by considering their partner's previous choices when making their own choices. Not but is a memory of past costs and rewards used in determining present exchanges, a forecast of future costs and rewards is considered also.¹⁹ When an exchange relationship is imbalanced, the private who is less dependent will take the most power, or the power advantage.^twenty For instance, a adult female who has no college instruction and lacks a stable job that provides her with a good income is more dependent on her husband, who earns the household income, than he is on her.

Exchange relations accept place over time. They are not unmarried transactions. For social exchange relationships to class and exist ongoing, the value of the exchange to each of the individuals in the relationship must be greater than the perceived value of the potential alternatives. For instance, as long as the value of the marital human relationship is perceived to be greater than the perceived value of divorce, the individuals will remain in the marital relationship. However, in some cases individuals volition remain in antagonistic relationships because the alternatives are perceived as even less desirable than the marital relationship (east.g., women in unsatisfying relationships with no didactics, no personal income, and many children to support) or because in that location is threat of penalization from the spouse (e.thousand., women in abusive relationships whose spouses threaten harm to them or their children if they exit). Social commutation theory acknowledges individuals do not always act rationally, but assumes those departures from rational behavior will follow predictable patterns.²¹ This theory assumes that humans act rationally when deciding on an exchange; however, this is not e'er true.²²

E COLOGICAL T HEORY

The major assumptions of Ecological Theory are that humans are interdependent with the surroundings; the whole system and its parts are interdependent and operate in relation to each other; a change in any part of the system affects the system as a whole and also the other parts of the system; all humans are interdependent with the resources of the world; the family is the foremost setting in which development occurs; the family interacts with more than one environment; interactions are regulated past the laws of nature and human-derived rules. Figure five shows the model with its systems. Information technology is depicted as concentric circles with the person of involvement in the centre. Each larger circumvolve is a organization that is less directly continued to the individual in the center although it does take some influence over the person.

The microsystem is the immediate social settings which an individual is involved in. There is focus on face-to-face interactions. Family, schoolhouse, piece of work, church, and peer groups are typically within the microsystem. The mesosystem links 2 microsystems together, straight or indirectly. For instance, a 10-yr old child is at the center of the model so his family is 1 of his microsystems and his classroom at school is another microsystem; the interaction is these ii is 1 of his mesosystems. An example of this interaction is a parent-instructor conference.²³

Figure five. Parts of the Human Ecological Theory Model. ²⁴

The exosystem are settings in which the person does non actively participate but in which significant decisions are made affecting other individuals who do interact straight with the person. Examples of a child's exosystem would be neighborhood/customs structures or parents piece of work environment. The macrosystem is the "blueprints" for defining and organizing the institutional life of the society, including overarching patterns of culture, politics, economy, etc. The chronosystem encompasses alter or consistency over time in the characteristics of the person and the environment in which the person lives (e.g., changes in family construction, SES, place of residence and community, society, cultural, and historical changes).²⁵

An example of how we might view a child of divorce with the Ecological Theory would be that his family configuration has changed (microsystem); one parent doesn't come up to parent-teacher conferences anymore (mesosystem); his mom has to get a total time chore and work more hours and be away from him for more hours per twenty-four hours (exosystem); society'due south views of divorce may brand it easy or hard for him to deal with the divorce (macrosystem); and his SES may have declined, his family unit structure has inverse, his place of residence may have changed. An Ecological Theorist would start his research by investigating these areas of the child'south life.

F EMINIST F AMILY T HEORY

Feminist theory is a theoretical perspective that is couched primarily in Conflict Theory assumptions, simply has added the dimension of sexual practice or gender to the written report of lodge. Feminist theorists focus on the inequality of power between men and women in society and in family life. The feminist perspective is near choice and about equally valuing the choices individuals make.²⁶ Feminist theories are a grouping of theories which focus on 4 important themes: recognition of women's oppression; an examination of what contributes to the maintenance of that oppression; a commitment to ending the unjust subordination; a futuristic vision of equality.²⁷

Women's subordination appears in works of Plato, who believed that men were more virtuous by nature, and others who believed men had more intellectual and reasoning capabilities. Following the industrial revolution, the women's movement emerged in the 19th century. Elizabeth Cady

Stanton established the National Organization of Women (Now). Susan B. Anthony was called to represent the Suffragists (women who worked for the vote for women) because of her less radical views. Past the 1880s in that location was widespread support for obtaining the vote. Many believed women deserved the vote due to their maternal virtues while others believed women and men were equal in endowments. Women won the right to vote in 1920. In the 1960s there was a resurgence of the feminist movement which grew from the movement for the rights of African Americans. This wave of the feminist move focused on equal pay for equal work, dissatisfaction and depression amongst American housewives, and ability as central to the social construction of gender.²⁸

The major assumptions of feminist theories are that women are oppressed; a focus on the axis, normality, and importance of women'due south experience; gender is socially constructed; the analyses of gender should include the larger socio-cultural context; and the term "family" supports women'due south oppression because it contains grade, cultural, and heterosexual biases.²⁹

Liberal feminists believe gender should not be a bulwark since men and women are endowed with the same rational and spiritual capacities. They are committed to social and legal reforms that volition create equal opportunities for women, ending sex discrimination, and challenging sexual practice stereotyping.³⁰ Social feminists believe women are oppressed past commercialism. Their focus is on redefining capitalism in relation to women'southward piece of work. Radical feminist theories insist the oppression of women is fundamental. Radical feminists believe the current patriarchal organisation must exist eliminated. Attending is directed towards bug of the body such as men'due south control over women's sexuality and reproduction, and men's use of rape and violence to violate women.³¹

The strengths of feminist theories are that they tin can exist practical to a wide range of issues and they provide valuable critique of other theories and perspectives that lack a focus on gender and power. These theories are limited in that enquiry and practice are ofttimes emotionally charged and at that place tin be an overemphasis on gender and power.³²

1. Maddox et al. (1987). The Encyclopedia of Aging. New York: Springer.
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutionalisation
3. © 2009 Ron J. Hammond, Ph.D.
4. © 2009 Ron J. Hammond, Ph.D.
5. Prepared past Ron J. Hammond, Ph.D. 2008
6. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Family unit%20Developmental%20Theory.htm
7. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Family unit%20Developmental%20Theory.htm
8. Elder & O'Rand. (1995); Hagestad & Neugarten (1985)
9. Esterberg et al. (1994)
10. Elder & O'Rand. (1995)
11. Bengtson & Allen. (1993)
12. Liker & Elder. (1983).
13. Albrecht, Bahr, & Goodman. (1983); Heaton & Albrecht. (1991)
14. Klein & White. (1996); Molm & Cook. (1995)
15. Klein & White. (1996)
16. Levenger. (1976); Thibaut & Kelly. (1959); White & Booth. (1991)
17. Klein & White. (1996); Molm & Cook. (1995); Nye. (1982)
18. Lewis & Spanier. (1979); Molm & Cook. (1995)
19. Lewis & Spanier. (1979)
20. Molm & Cook. (1995)
21. Klein & White. (1996); Molm & Cook (1995)
22. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Social%20Exchange%20Theory.htm
23. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Human%20Ecological%20Theory.htm
24. http://www.sasklearning.gov.sk.ca/branches/psych_portal/images/ecological_model1.jpg
25. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Homo%20Ecological%20Theory.htm
26. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Feminist%20Family%20Theory.htm
27. Avis, 1986
28. http://hhd.csun.^edu/hillwilliams/542/Feminist%20Family%20Theory.htm
29. http://hhd.csun^{. edu /}hillwilliams/542/Feminist%20Family%20Theory.htm
30. Osmond & Thorne, 1993
31. http://hhd.csun^{. edu}/hillwilliams/542/Feminist%20Family%20Theory.htm
32. http://hhd.csun^{. edu/}hillwilliams/542/Feminist%20Family%20Theory.htm

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